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Batteries | How They Work Defined

Understanding How Batteries Work

by | Educational, Energy

Batteries power everything from life-saving pacemakers to our lifestyle-facilitating cell phones. They also allow us to transport electrical power wherever we need it, from the South Pole to the Amazon and everywhere in between, providing light, heat, communications, and more.Batteries power everything from life-saving pacemakers to our lifestyle-facilitating cell phones. They also allow us to transport electrical power wherever we need it, from the South Pole to the Amazon and everywhere in between, providing light, heat, communications, and more.  

Almost all of us will have relied on batteries at some point, perhaps reaching for a flashlight during a power outage. Our interconnectivity with batteries means we rarely stop to ask, “How do batteries work?” This guide covers everything you need to know about batteries, from their 18th-century beginnings to why you shouldn’t charge a cold car battery. 

Introduction to Batteries 

Batteries give us a portable electric current or electricity and the ability to store energy. Energy is omnipresent throughout the universe in various forms.  

Electricity is the movement of electrons between atoms, where electrons bang into each other to create an electrical flow. Batteries do not store electricity — they hold electrical energy in chemicals contained within the battery. What a battery does is convert its stored chemical energy into electric current 

How Do Batteries Work? 

Let’s look at a classic AA battery, commonly used in remote controls, toys, and more. At one end of the battery is a negative end, called an anode. At the other end is a positive end, called the cathode. Both the anode and cathode are also known as electrodes or electrical terminals.  

The battery’s body separates these negative and positive electrodes. Within the battery’s body are electrolytes, which act as a sort of barrier between the anode and cathode. These three parts form what is called an electrochemical cell — two electrodes (the anode and cathode) — separated by an electrolyte (the battery’s body). A battery consists of several of these cells. 

When a battery sits idle, not making an electrical circuit, the electrolytes and electrodes are dormant. As soon as you make a circuit, for example, by putting the battery into a flashlight and turning it on, a chemical reaction begins.  

The anode, our negative electrode, reacts with the electrolytes and produces electrons, which build up at the battery’s negative terminal. The anode is usually made from a material that likes to give up electrons, also known as an oxidation or oxidized material.  

At the positive terminal, the cathode electrode reacts with electrolytes to create ions — atoms with too few or too many electrons. The cathode is made from a metal oxide that likes to collect both ions and electrons. 

As the saying goes, opposites attract. The electrons want to travel from the negative terminal (anode) to the positive terminal (cathode). The electrolytes act as a barrier to the electrons and the electrons cannot travel through the battery’s body. At the same time, charged ions flow through the electrolyte solution that is in contact with both electrodes. 

With our flashlight, we make an external circuit when we insert batteries and turn on the flashlight. The blocked flow of electrons looks for the path of least resistance. The electrons want to leave the anode and travel to the cathode.  

Our electrons find that the external circuit offers the path of least resistance to move through the external circuit we have created. They flow from the anode through the flashlight’s wires and light bulb to the cathode. They recombine with the ions at the positive terminal to complete the circuit and illuminate the bulb en route. Remember, electricity is the movement of electrons between atoms. 

This process is known as reduction-oxidation, or a redox reaction, the scientific term for any reaction involving the exchange of electrons. 

A battery’s electrolyte can only perform this chemical reaction a certain number of times before it no longer produces ions and the battery is flat. 

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What Is Inside a Battery? 

We’ve looked at the three main parts of a battery: the negative electrode (anode), the positive electrode (cathode), and the electrolytes that separate these electrodes. 

Let’s look at the components of an AA-size alkaline-manganese dioxide battery, also known as alkaline batteries 

Externally, the battery has steel-plated positive and negative electrodes, and the main steel body is covered with a PVC label.  

Internally, the battery has a brass rod acting as a central shaft that acts as a current collector. A separator surrounds this brass rod to keep it away from the electrolyte solution. There are two types of electrolytes within the battery the anode has a gel of powdered zinc and the cathode has manganese dioxide. There are various seals and washers, too. 

Batteries with different materials for their electrodes and electrolytes produce different chemical reactions. These affect how the battery works, from its voltage to energy storage capacity. For example, there would be no flow of electrons if we used the same material for the electrodes.  

For a more in-depth look, watch this video about the battery-making process. 

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Different Types of Batteries 

Different Types of Batteriessource

There are many types of batteries. The first distinction to make is whether the battery is a primary battery or a secondary battery.There are many types of batteries. The first distinction to make is whether the battery is a primary battery or a secondary battery. 

Simply put, a primary battery is not rechargeable, and a secondary battery is rechargeable. Generally speaking, a primary battery has more energy density than a secondary battery, meaning a primary battery can provide power for longer than a secondary battery. Another important difference: We can recharge and recycle secondary batteries but only recycle exhausted primary batteries. 

There are several types of batteries within the two classifications of primary and secondary batteries. Let’s look at primary batteries first. 

What Are the Three Main Types of Primary Batteries? 

We use primary batteries in many important aspects of our lives thanks to their longevity. A pacemaker is a fantastic example of primary battery use we can’t just keep operating on people whose pacemaker battery needs recharging. 

Primary batteries are also known as dry cell batteries. But they are not dry. The term comes from the fact that the battery’s contents cannot be spilled, no matter its position. Different materials set each battery apart, with each material altering the battery’s power and lifespan. There are three main types of primary batteries: 

  1. Zinc carbon: Also known as the Leclanché battery after its French inventor George Leclanché, was one of the first batteries available and remains one of the cheapest to this day. As you likely guessed, its electrodes are made of zinc and carbon. These batteries come in cylindrical and rectangular shapes and tend to have a relatively short lifespan. They work better with low-energy demand appliances such as toys or TV remote controls. In addition, modern zinc carbon batteries may use zinc chloride to increase their potential; these are often called “heavy duty” batteries. 
  2. Alkaline: The alkaline battery rose to prominence around a century ago. It uses different materials than a zinc carbon battery. Rectangular and cylindrical alkaline batteries have a zinc anode and a manganese dioxide cathode, with potassium hydroxide as their electrolyte. There are many practical advantages to alkaline batteries compared to zinc carbon batteries, with longer and more powerful discharges, greater storage life, and better ability to function in colder conditions.

There are more subsets of alkaline batteries, too, whose power depends on its electrodes — the electrolyte remains potassium hydroxide.  

Finally, button batteries, such as those used in watches and hearing aids, have a zinc anode and a silver oxide cathode. Button batteries are expensive, renowned for their long life, and offer high discharges.  

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You can create an alkaline battery with a nearly unlimited shelf life called a zinc air battery by changing the electrodes again. A zinc anode combined with an oxygen cathode makes an alkaline battery used in hearing aids, pagers, watches, and more. Zinc air batteries have the highest energy density of all disposable batteries and come in cylindrical, 9-volt, and coin shapes.  

  1. Lithium: These batteries complete the primary battery section and are among the more expensive batteries. They are commonly used in digital cameras and other small appliances. Lithium batteries, which are usually cylindrical or button types, use an organic electrolyte. Lower volt (1.6V) lithium batteries have a lithium anode and an iron sulfide cathode, while higher volt (2.8-3.2V) lithium batteries swap iron sulfide for manganese dioxide cathodes.

What Are the Types of Secondary, or Rechargeable, Batteries? 

There are also three types of secondary, or rechargeable, batteries. Like primary batteries, there are alkaline and lithium types secondary batteries. The third type of rechargeable battery is a lead-acid battery, famous for use as a car battery. Similarly, changing the battery’s raw materials affects its performance and uses. You should always recycle rechargeable batteries because their valuable components can be reused. 

1) Lead-acid batteries  

These are not just car batteries; they are also used in wheelchairs and emergency power sources. Lead-acid batteries are heavy, cheap to manufacture, and have an extended life. They feature lead anodes, lead dioxide cathodes, and sulfuric acid electrolytes. 

2) Alkaline batteries 

There are two types of alkaline rechargeable batteries. Nickel-cadmium batteries, also known as Ni-Cd or NiCAd batteries, were widespread when people started using rechargeable batteries for toys, personal music players, toys, and so on. They performed and recharged well, but the toxic cadmium was challenging to recycle.  

The cadmium anode was replaced by a lanthanide or nickel alloy anode to create the nickel-metal hydride battery or NiMH. These are much safer than the Ni-CD batteries, offer excellent power supply, and recharge well. You’ll see cylindrical and rectangular rechargeable NiMH batteries on sale, and they are used in electric cars. 

3) Lithium-ion batteries 

Lithium-ion batteries have revolutionized our relationship with batteries. Our cell phones, laptops, and electric cars run on these quick-charging batteries. They use carbon anode and lithium cobalt dioxide cathodes, and an organic electrolyte. Lithium-ion batteries are also used at giant battery farms to capture excess renewable power for later use. 

What Are the Different Sizes of Batteries? 

Batteries Different Sizessource

Batteries are similar to boxes and cupboards when it comes to thinking about storage. The bigger the battery, the more electrolytes it contains, and the more electrical charge it offers. The most common battery sizes in our day-to-day-lives are: 

  • AA batteries: Known as double-A batteries, these are cylindrical and the most commonly found batteries for millions of gadgets. 
  • AAA batteries: Also known as triple-A batteries, these are smaller than AA batteries and often used in TV remotes and gadgets that don’t require high power. 
  • C batteries: These are bigger than AA or AAA batteries for use in higher-demand items like lanterns, flashlights, and games. 
  • D batteries: These are larger still for heavier-duty products that have a high power drain or need to be powered for a long time before. 

All the above batteries offer 1.5 volts of power. 

The recognizable, rectangular 9-volt battery offers more power, and coin batteries provide long lifespans in a small, coin-shaped design perfect for small gadgets like watches. 

There are many more specialist battery types, such as the CR123A, also known as the 123, for security alarms and other specific uses. 

What Does Battery Voltage Mean? 

A battery’s voltage determines how much electric potential it will create once connected to a circuit. For example, a car battery’s 12 volts is a higher voltage than a AAA battery’s 1.5 volts. This is because a car needs a fair amount of power to start, while a TV remote control only needs smaller triple AAA batteries to work. 

Think back to the negative end (anode) and positive end (cathode) of a battery. The term voltage stems from the difference in electric potential between the anode and cathode — the greater the difference, the higher the battery’s voltage. 

The term volt honors Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist who invented the world’s first electrochemical cell in 1800. Volta used a zinc anode and a copper cathode with salt and water as his electrolytic solution. In 1881, Volta’s name was given to the measurement of the difference in the electric potential between the anode and cathode. Thus, what was once called electromotive force (EMF) became known as volt or voltage. 

Batteries also list mAh values or milliampere hours. The mAh shows how much electrical energy a battery holds. The higher the mAh value, the more energy the battery can store, the longer it will last, and the longer it will take to recharge, too. 

Are Batteries AC or DC? 

Batteries offer DC or direct current power, providing a regular, steady, and controllable flow. National grids transport electricity using alternative current (AC), a current that changes direction rapidly. 

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Are Batteries Capacitors? 

Put simply, no; batteries are not capacitors. Batteries store electrical energy, whereas capacitors store energy too, but in an electric field.  

Problems Using Batteries  

Woman using iPhonesource

Batteries are a great way to transport power, but it’s not always smooth running. Primary batteries can run out of juice at inopportune times. Also, you may not have your charger handy to recharge batteries or have the correct battery for your appliance.Batteries are a great way to transport power, but it’s not always smooth running. Primary batteries can run out of juice at inopportune times. Also, you may not have your charger handy to recharge batteries or have the correct battery for your appliance. 

Can Batteries Get Wet and Still Work? 

Water is not suitable for contact with batteries. Water can rust the battery’s structure, sometimes causing it to self-discharge and run out of power. The battery’s degradation may also cause it to leak and stop working and possibly explode.  

If you accidentally wash clothes with a battery in the pocket, your washing machine should be fine because any leak will be significantly diluted during the machine’s wash cycle. 

Overall, it’s best not to get batteries wet. If they do get wet then it’s advisable to stop using them. 

Can Batteries Freeze? 

Everything can freeze if the temperature drops low enough. So the question is more, can you use batteries in freezing weather conditions, and can you recharge them? 

Each battery is different, but all of them work less efficiently once temperatures drop below freezing. The best advice is not to charge any battery that is frozen. 

A fully charged lead-acid car battery can work at temperatures as low as -58 degrees Fahrenheit. If it’s low on charge, it could freeze at around 30 degrees Fahrenheit. You can charge them when the ambient temperature is between -4 and 122 Fahrenheit. It’s always best to charge a lead-acid battery at room temperature and not when it is cold or frozen — after all, lead-acid batteries can explode. If in doubt, do not charge the battery and call a professional mechanic to help.  

Alkaline batteries work between -4 and 149 Fahrenheit and charge between 32 and 113 Fahrenheit. 

Lithium-ion batteries will work between -4 and 140 Fahrenheit and charge between 32 and 113 Fahrenheit. 

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Are Batteries Allowed on Planes? 

Most batteries are allowed on planes — almost everyone carries a laptop, tablet, video game, or cell phone onto a plane. 

Dry-cell alkaline and NiMH rechargeable batteries can come into the plane with you, either in your device or in your luggage as spares. These batteries can also be checked into your checked baggage, although it’s best practice to carry them with you aboard. You must only have dry-cell lithium batteries in devices or as spares on board. 

Spare batteries should have contacts taped over for the flight and kept in protective cases or plastic bags. Don’t keep extra batteries next to any metal objects because this may cause them to short-circuit and overheat. 

If you plan to travel with a spare rechargeable lithium-ion battery, contact your airline for advice in advance. Rechargeable li-ion batteries are generally allowed as carry-on but are often subject to strict size limits. 

Can Batteries Be Recycled? 

Batteries contain several toxic, harmful, and valuable materials, depending on the battery type. Mercury, lead, lithium, and cobalt are some of a battery’s possible materials and should always be disposed of properly.  

Batteries and their components are potentially dangerous and damaging to people, land, animals, and flora. Recycling or returning to the point of manufacture is the best option for exhausted batteries. 

Do not put any batteries in the regular trash. Always check with your local or state solid waste disposal section for recycling and disposal methods. Some retailers and manufacturers also accept battery returns, particularly important for automotive and lithium-ion batteries. 

Check search.earth.911com for recycling centers or use the call2recycle website for information about battery recycling. 

The Future of Batteries 

Batteries have come a long way from Alessandro Volta’s early invention. However, they still adhere to his discovery that stored chemical energy can be converted into electrical energy. Technological advances mean we know various materials increase the amount of electricity produced, and design has made batteries as versatile as they are helpful. 

Lithium-ion batteries offer days of use to cell phone owners and will help power the electric vehicle revolution. Some 145-230 million new electric cars are expected on the world’s roads before 2030, powered by batteries. Utility-scale battery storage farms are set to explode from four-gigawatt capacity in 2019 to 400-gigawatt capacity by 2040, capturing excess renewable energy for later use. 

So, how do batteries work? The basic concept is straightforward. A chemical reaction makes electrons leave the battery’s negative end and travel via an electrical circuit to the positive end. This journey by electrons is what gives us portable, reliable electricity in the form of a battery that powers our daily lives. 

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